Gifted and Talented Education in the United States Essay

Abstract The purpose of this research is to find the best way for selecting and teaching gifted children for Gifted and Talented Education Programs in the United States. It explores who exactly are defined as â€Å"gifted students† and what their characteristics are like compared to regular students. Then it explains main ways of selecting and teaching them and listing pros and cons of each method. Finally it concludes that in order for Gifted and Talented Education in America to give full scope to gifted students’ ability, it is best to select children by using a set of Measures of Academic Progress Test, Otis Lennon School Ability Test, and Structure of Intellect and teach them in the method called cluster grouping. Introduction Although school districts in the United States recognize that gifted and talented students are children with unique advantage and excellence, state laws, local policies, and available funding vary widely in each state. Therefore each school has their own services and curriculum for gifted students and also there is uneven protection for gifted and talented students under the law. This holds back the progress of gifted students which means that the disparity of school districts is taking away the children’s capability, potential, and their future. Therefore, it is important to unify the selection method and the broad idea of how to teach gifted students. There are many ways of selecting and teaching them, but the best way to select children is to use a set of Measures of Academic Progress Test, Otis Lennon School Ability Test, and Structure of Intellect and teach them in the cluster grouping method because these are the most effective way to select and teach gifted students in order to cultivate unique their skills and expand the possibilities for their future. In this paper, it will define what Gifted and Talented Education Program and who gifted students are, and explain what kind of entrance exam for gifted education is the best. After that, according to the characteristics of gifted students, it will explore the best way of teaching them. Gifted and Talented Education Program Gifted and Talented Education is a broad term for â€Å"special practices, procedures and theories used to educate children who have been identified as gifted or talented†. National Association for Gifted Children, NAGC, estimates that approximately 6% of the student population is gifted and talented† (â€Å"National Association for Gifted Children†). The detailed aim of this education program differs from district to district, but the common aims that all school have are to develop students’ merits by following the lead of the gifted students since they have different speed of learning, most of the time faster, than regular students. Most of the decisions on gifted education are made at the state and local level. The Definition of Gifted Students There is no standard global definition for gifted students to this day. US Department of Education defines them as â€Å"children and youth with outstanding talent who perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment† (â€Å"US Department of Education†). However, there are many controversies among researchers over the definition of gifted students. In most school districts all over the United States, â€Å"students who generally score high scores on aptitude tests or on periodic examinations were offered a test to receive Gifted and Talented Education Program† (Maker and Nielson 5). However in this measurement, the students are selected based only on their general intelligence, which is a scholastic performance on coursework such as mathematical calculation capabilities and reading abilities in English. Therefore, in the past several years, the researchers have been challenging the theories and the definition of the gifted students. Some researchers say gifted students are children who are highly proficient based on triarchic theory of intelligence formulated by Sternberg. He discussed in his theory that intelligence consisted of three aspects. First is the analytic skill, such as ability to comprehend abstractly and evaluate information. Second is the synthetic skill or creativity, the ability to invent novel solutions or ideas. Third is practical skill, which enables people to cope with determinate situations. Also he proposed that intelligence involves distinct mental cognitive processes of three kinds: â€Å"(a) metacomponents, or executive processes needed for planning, monitoring, and evaluating problem solving; (b) knowledge-acquisition components, used to gather information necessary to solve problems; and (c) performance components, or processes needed to implement the commands issued by the metacomponents†(Sternberg 7). According to Sternberg, gifted students are not necessarily those who are good at processing general information but also students who are good communicating with people or who have more unique inspirations than others. Gardner defined intelligence as â€Å"the ability to solve problems of fashion products that are valued in at least one culture† (Gardner 4). In his research, it showed that there were at least seven different intelligences in people – linguistic, logical mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily kinesthetic, and intrapersonal. In this view, although it is true that students who score highly on standardized intelligence are somewhat gifted and talented, they are only adept in one aspect out of the many fields human being could be masterful. Gifted children are those who are adept in unique aspects. The Criteria for Determination of Gifted Students There are mainly three ways to test out students so that they can be identified as gifted and talented students: â€Å"a set of Otis Lennon School Ability Test and Stanford Achievement Test, WISC-IV, and a set of Measures of Academic Progress Test, Otis Lennon School Ability Test, and Structure of Intellect† (Porter, section 2). The set of Otis Lennon School Ability Test and Stanford Achievement Test, usually expects students to score 96 percent in at least one subject and score more than 86 percent in Otis–Lennon School Ability Test, OLSAT. The Stanford Achievement Test mainly measures basic academic skills. OLSAT is a test of abstract thinking and reasoning ability. â€Å"It is organized into five areas, and it includes an equal number of verbal and non-verbal items each area which are verbal comprehension, verbal reasoning, pictorial reasoning, figural reasoning, and quantitative reasoning† (â€Å"Otis-Lennon School Ability Test ®Ã¢â‚¬ ). This means that this measures students mostly students’ standard scholarship like standardized intelligence. WISC-IV shows IQ scores which shows essential information and critical clinical insights into a child’s cognitive functioning. However, theories and the results of experiments by Gardner and Sternberg imply that schools in the United States should not define giftedness only by general intelligence or on IQ test scores of students. In this view, although it is true that students who score highly on standardized intelligence are somewhat gifted and talented, they are only adept in one aspect out of the many fields human being could be masterful. Therefore, the two tests that were above-mentioned are not suitable to determine students as gifted and talented students since these focus mainly on basic academic achievements and not on other factors that students could be talented in. The set of Measures of Academic Progress Test, Otis Lennon School Ability Test, and Structure of Intellect, this focuses many aspects that children could be talented in, like regular scholastic abilities, artistic creativity, and interpersonal relationships unlike two of the tests mentioned above. Therefore if this method is used as the entrance examination system to receive gifted and talented education, students who are in gifted education program would be able to get opportunities to blossom further by getting motivated and inspired by other talented children who are gifted in other aspects because this method allows to accept many different kinds of talented students in the education program. Hence it is best to unify the Criteria for Determination of Gifted Students to the set of Measures of Academic Progress Test, Otis Lennon School Ability Test, and Structure of Intellect. Characteristics of Gifted Students and the Adequate Way to Teach Accordingly There are many characteristics that gifted students have which regular students do not. Gifted learners usually have â€Å"excellent memories and ability to understand concepts and principles quickly† (Maker 104). Some of the gifted students have extraordinary capacity to input information and strategies with incredible fast time and naturally without so much effort put into it. This means that they only need little practice in order to acquire knowledge. However, they still do need to learn how to use the knowledge they acquired by analyzing, synthesizing, and by evaluating. It goes without saying that they already have this type of strategy, but it is important to develop their merits even more to their full extent. Dewy explains that most gifted learners fit into at least one of the following aspects: â€Å"(a) extraordinary ability to communicate ideas and feelings through words, actions, symbols, sounds, or other media of expression; (b) outstanding ability to think things through and consider implications or alternatives; (c) goal-oriented thought; (d) abilities to use ideas, processes, or materials ingeniously; and (e) an unusual capacity for information acquisition and retrieval† (344). He also explains that these kind of students need â€Å"opportunities to express in some form that leads them to show their ideas, problem solutions, or conclusion and to make connections to previous knowledge or experience† (351). Opportunity for students to express what they have in their mind is important since learners can benefit from hearing, seeing, or reading how others analyzed their opinions because the method of expressing could be different from their own. Second reason is because others have a chance to analyze and evaluate their process and also their finished product of their thinking. Also, it is important because â€Å"students need to be aware of their own mental processes in order to learn to control them† (Clarke 118). Expressing is one of the best ways for gifted students to educate themselves and also get education from other peers in class. Group activities build leadership and characteristics of each student. Maker and Nielson states that â€Å"because of the high degree of participation and the rapid pace of most games, gifted students usually maintain their interest in group-process† (129). In most cases in an active group interaction, some kind of structure forms. For example, one is perceptive, responsive, and assertive to their opinions and feelings, one is seasoned listener and knits up discussion when needed, and one has sense of humor unifying the group with a warm atmosphere. One could even not be participating in a group interaction at all. In structured performance like this, students can extend their uniqueness and skills they have and also influence each other positively by interacting with each other. One who is not participating at all seems like student is giving a negative influence, but in a group of gifted students, others who are participating have possibility to improve communication competency by trying to cope with him. Group process activities can be just a simple group discussion, or simulated social situations, or even games that need trust, willingness to open them up, and develop ability to support the group process activities. Considering all the characteristics of the gifted student learners, the best way to teach is to use the method called the cluster grouping. Cluster grouping is â€Å"an educational process in which four to six gifted and talented (GT) and/or high achieving students are assigned to an otherwise heterogeneous classroom within their grade to be instructed by a teacher that has had specialized training in differentiating for gifted learners† (Winebrenner 177). Clustering is not simply putting all the academiclly accelerated students into one classroom to study like other methods such as pull-outs, compacting, and enrichment which U.S. Government reported that these methods are generally unsuccessful in 1993. In cluster grouping, talented students are able to receive the place to express themselves to others in their individual way, develop their ability to use the knowledge they have acquired by analyzing, synthesizing, and by evaluating, and group activities. Schuler emphasizes that â€Å"through cluster grouping the intellectual, social, and emotional needs of the gifted students can be addressed† (section 4). There are many cleasr evidence that shows the advantages in cluster grouping. According to one survey, advantages include: â€Å"cost effectiveness, high challenge and expectations of students, faster progression through curricula, administrative ease in observation of services, increased understanding of GT students, and an improved opportunity to address the psychological needs of the GT students† (Rogers 249). Other research has shown â€Å"a 99% positive approval rating among parents of clustered children and a 90% positive approval rating among the children themselves.† (Rogers 226). Therefore, it is clear that cluster grouping is a successful method to teach gifted students. Conclusion There is clear evidence and reasonings that cluster grouping method and the set of Measures of Academic Progress Test, Otis Lennon School Ability Test, and Structure of Intellect for selective examination are the most effective and efficient way to use gifted education in America. However, there are still many questions and problems unsolved even though the gifted and talented education in the United States started more than 100 years ago. One of the reasons is because that there are only few researchers who collect numerical data of gifted children. Many researchers most of the time only come up with new method of teaching or selecting gifted students but they do not publish clear evidence why they are successful. United States is in need of furthur research and experiments on gifted education and gifted students for the success of the future children and for the future of the United States. Clarke, John. Patterns of thinking: Integrating learning skills in content teaching. Columbus, OH: Merrill, 1986. Dewey, John. The child and the curriculum and the school and society. Chicago, IL: University of Chiago Press, 1956 Gardner, Howard. Five Forms of Creativie Activity: A Developmental Perspective. Dayton, OH: Ohio Psychology Press, 1994 Maker, C. June and Aleene B. Nielson. Curriculum Development and Teaching Strategies for Gifted Learners. 2nd ed. Austin, TX: Pro ed, 1995 Rogers, Karen. Re-forming Gifted Education. Scottsdale, AZ: Great Potential Press, 2002 Schuler, Patricia. Cluster Grouping Coast to Coast, Neag Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development. Danbury, CT: University of Connecticut, 2005 Sternberg, Robert. Conceptions of giftedness. New York, NY: Cambridge University Express, 1986 Winebrenner, Susan. Teaching Gifted Kids in the Regular Classroom. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing, 2001 â€Å"Gifted and Talented Students† U.S. Department of Education. < http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg72.html>. â€Å"What is Gifted† National Association for Gifted Children. < http://nagc.org/WhatisGiftedness.aspx >. â€Å"America no Gifted Education no Kyouiku Jijyou† Washington State University. 2 November. 2011. < http://www.blog.crn.or.jp/report/02/130.html >.

Escape Essay

All day long Orloff had paced his cell. The blackness of the sky outside was equaled only by the blackness of his thoughts. The deep rolling of the thunder reverberated through the thick stone walls of his prison, and every now and then a fitful gust of rain swirled through the tiny broken window, wetting his face as he stared out into the night. Orloff cursed, wiped the water from his face with his grimy fingers, and turned to pacing his cell once more. For seven long years Orloff had been thus confined – but a small fraction of the life sentence he was serving for the horrible crime he had committed. But at times he had asked himself, â€Å"Was it not worth it, after all?† He could still feel the wet, warm blood trickling between his fingers, and see the whites of his victim’s eyes. Then, too, there was that great day of the trial, when so many officials, in their splendid uniforms and gold braid, and so many beautiful women, clad in their furs and satins, had gazed at him, horror-struck, unable to avert their eyes from his face, or miss one word that fell from his lips†¦At such times Orloff would rub his hands and smile to himself, in memory of that great day. But tonight Orloff was in a different mood. Black despair and vengeance reigned supreme in his soul; he wished only to escape, in order that he might seek out his destroyers and in turn destroy them. His steps became more feverishly agitated; perspiration gathered on his forehead and he clenched his hands until the nails bit into his flesh and little trickles of blood oozed from between his fingers. A brilliant lightning flash illuminated the far wall of his cell –lighting it as it had never been lighted before. Orloff’s eyes became riveted upon a huge stone, on the lowest tier†¦Were his eyes deceiving him, or had he in truth seen a tiny crack surrounding it, as though the cement had been scraped away or altogether removed? Hardly daring to breathe he tip-toed across the room and fell on his knees before the stone, feeling its edges with his blood-stained fingers. Yes, there was a deep crevice surrounding it. And, what was more, the stone was loose. Orloff tugged at it, scraping the flesh from his fingers, sweat pouring from his face and matted hair†¦It moved†¦He pulled the great stone from its place and peered into the blackness beyond. Another lightning flash showed him what he had hardly dared hope for – a passage in the rock, leading downward from his place of torment. On the floor was a piece of paper, folded and yellow with age. With trembling fingers he carried it to the window, through which shone the faint rays of a lamp in the courtyard below, and there unfolded it. On it was a brief message, apparently written with some dark red fluid. For the first time in his life Orloff was glad that he had been made to read, if only a little. For on the paper was written: â€Å"I escaped by this passage. May he who finds this share my good fortune.† It was signed S.K. The tramp of the sentry’s feet resounded outside the door of his cell. Orloff threw himself over the stone till the footsteps had died away; then he thrust his head and shoulders into the opening, and began slowly to worm his way along the narrow passage before him. The walls of the passage were wet with slime and mould, and sharp, jagged rocks protruded, tearing Orloff’s clothes and scratching deep into his flesh†¦But of all this Orloff knew nothing. His eyes were gleaming, but only one thought was present in his mind –escape. He dug his bloody fingers into the mud and pushed himself steadily forward, flat on his stomach, like a serpent. As he advanced, the floor of the passage became steeper and steeper, sloping at an ever-greater angle. The walls became yet wetter and more slimy and the jagged rocks bit deeper into his writhing limbs. Foot after foot Orloff propelled himself along this narrow, sloping path. His breath came in short gasps, while the darkness seemed to become ever more intense. For one moment he paused, an agonizing fear shooting through him. He realized that it would be impossible for him ever to ascend that sloping passage to regain his cell. A cold shiver ran down his spine. Then, he clenched his teeth and propelled himself forward with the superhuman strength of despair. A sharp bend in the passage revealed a sight which made him gasp. A faint circular opening in the distance permitted the rays of the moon –which had fitfully begun to shine –to penetrate the stygian blackness. The end of the passage lay before him. Victory –escape! The cold night air fanned his face; he urged himself onward in a last desperate effort. The passage became ever more sloping as he advanced. His body was inclined at a sickening angle. Strange streaks of blackness seemed to cross his vision, as he half fell, half slid the few feet which yet remained to be traversed. Orloff’s head crashed into something hard, which half stunned him. A moment later he opened his eyes, and saw before him a heavily barred iron grating, and – a skeleton.

How Were Markets and Fairs an Important Part of Medieval Life

Lesly Kurian 8 June 2007 â€Å"First of all, there are the hucksters who sell food to the public, the beer sellers, the publicans, and then the weavers. Not far off are the drapers, and then the parchment sellers’ pitch. Then the open space where they sell uncured skins and wool†¦Here comes the people leading the animals- cows, oxen, ewes and pigs, and men selling horses, the best you can buy, mares, foals, and palfreys, suitable for counts and kings. † Many people came to buy items from markets and fairs, including the 13th century poet who described a typical market (Pierre and Sabbagh 54).Markets were important to daily life because most of the items people bought there, they couldn’t grow or make themselves. People also made a living by selling goods there. Going to markets also gave people a chance to see goods produced in other towns (MacDonald 8). Markets were held once a week and usually lasted for a day or two (9). Since many towns were built near r ivers, merchants could easily come to them and set up stalls and tents (Grant). In the center of town, there was a large space for stalls to be set up. In wealthy towns, markets were held in grand halls or covered by a canvas roof from the weather.In the market, officials checked and measured items and identified fake money (Mac Donald 9). Merchants sold an incredible variety of items for daily life; food, utensils, tools, clothing, art, and combs (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†, MacDonald 8). Rich merchants set up stalls to sell these items. However, peasants who came to sell their goods couldn’t afford stalls, so they were forced to display on the ground. Even worse, they had to pay a tax if they displayed on the ground (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†)! Superstitions were strong in markets too!In a typical market, a cross or holy statue was placed in the center to protect customers from any danger (MacDonald 9)! Eventually, merchants started visiting and trading in other areas. By the 12th century, many became traders and used ships on trade routes (Langley 46). Most traders used ships because they could carry large loads over a long distance versus carts on roads (Grant, MacDonald 11). Items usually transported on ships were wool, metals, timber, oil, wine, and salt (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†). As trade increased, major castles and cities became wealthy. New towns were created during the High Middle Ages because of this immense wealth.Some even became independent of a lord or king’s rule by paying him a tax (Langley 48). As new towns were created, the population grew and some towns grew into major cities, like Paris, Venice, London, and Florence. The increase of trade also provided jobs for many and helped spread ideas around the world. Cities often became contacts and allies because of this (MacDonald 10). One group of contacts was called the Hanseatic League. It linked over 100 towns with each other. This group dominated Northern Eur opean trade from the 13th to the 15th centuries (Pierre and Sabbagh 54, Grant).Trading among towns led way to fairs. Fairs were very special occasions because people got to look at and buy foreign and expensive items not sold at markets (MacDonald 9). They gave people a chance to take a break from daily life and enjoy themselves. They were held once a year on a saint’s feast day (Langley 54). Fairs were usually located on the outskirts of town because there was enough grassland for traders to set up their tents and graze their animals (MacDonald 9). Traders from many different lands sold specialty items at fairs.Valuable furs, such as lynx and leopard, were popular. People also took interest in special foods like pig meat and onions. Tools and weapons were also available (Pierre and Sabbagh 54). Entertainment and refreshments was also a large part of fairs. Jugglers, stunts men, acrobats and musicians performed there. Gambling was also part of fairs. Men bet on who would win a fight; wrestlers and dogs against bears and cockfights were popular (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†). Refreshments, especially during hot weather, were enjoyable. Bakers and brewers served pies, or chewets, and beer (Langley 54).There was special fair called the Fairs of Champagne, in France. It went on throughout the whole year without stop. Merchants, traders, and customers alike all flocked there to sell and buy goods. Unfortunately, it ended during war in the 15th century (Pierre and Sabbagh 54). As anyone can see, markets and fairs during Medieval Times were an important part of daily life. They provided needed items for life and occasional luxuries, too. However, not everyone appreciated markets and fairs. Preachers often complained that fairs were held on holy days so people would shop instead of pray!They also believed that markets and fairs were places that people sinned the most; cursing, boasting, lying and arguing all happened there (MacDonald 9). Imagine that! Biblio graphy Grant, Neil. Everyday Life in Medieval Europe. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2001. Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. MacDonald, Fiona. Town Life. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media: 2005. Pierre, Michel and Morgan-Antoine Sabbagh. Europe in the Middle Ages. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1998. N/A. â€Å"Markets and Fairs† N/A. Online. http://www. xtec. es/crle/02/middle_ages/alumne/index. htm. 20 May 2007.

Purchasing Power Parity and the Big Mac Index Essay

Purchasing Power Parity and the Big Mac Index - Essay Example On the other hand, a US Dollar has more purchasing power than a Pakistani or Indian Rupee. These differences are usually because of availability and demand for the goods amongst other factors. By taking an international measure and determining the cost for that measure in each of the two currencies and comparing them we can solve this problem. (McGuigan, 2008) This formula represents the exchange rate of one currency in relative terms to another currency. P1 is the price of an item in one currency while P2 is the price of the same item in another currency (Investopedia, 2008). Although according to this theory, the relative prices for a same product should be equal in two different locations. However we rarely see this happen. This theory doesn't even hold true in areas inside a city. For example in a high end posh area of a city might sell the same product at a much higher rate than the shop set up in a low end area. This brings us to the most popular example of purchasing power parity, the Big Max Index. Calculated by the Economist Magazine, the Big Mac index is used to find the exchange rate to determine the value of other items. Since McDonalds is virtually in every country, this index is readily applicable. All we need is the price of Big Mac in the two countries we need to find the exchange rate of. For example a Big Mac in US costs around $4 while a Big Mac in India costs Rupees 200 thus the index will be $1 equivalent to Rs. 50. This index is used further to get an idea of the actual exchange rate in the market and to determine the relative value of other items. (McGuigan, 2008) The main use of the index is to find the GDP and hence the standard of living of the people in a certain location. When we are determining the Gross Domestic Product of a country, a fall in the value of the currency relative to another base currency, will make the GDP fall by the same value. Taking the same example of the Indian Rupee and the US Dollar, a fall in the Rupee by 50%, will force the GDP expressed in US dollars to drop to 50%. This piece of information does not reflect true picture of the situation since the devaluation of the Indian currency maybe due to the international trade issues. However when we look at each day's exchange rates of the Dollar to the Rupee, we see fluctuations coming each day. But when we use the Big Mac index, these fluctuations are not reflected into the price of Big Mac each day. The price of the Big Mac remains to be Rs. 200 for quite a while even though the value of Dollar is increasing. Purchasing Power Parity - Analysis When we talk about the long-run, the purchasing power parity theory tells us that differences in the prices of the items in different countries are not sustainable as forces acting in the market place will equalize prices between countries and change exchange rates in doing so. Consider an example of a person who finds that the price of tomatoes is $5 lesser in another state. Traveling to the other state will cost the person $50 in fuel, thus just to save $5, this trip will incur a loss to the person. But when you consider bulk purchase this scenario comes out to be completely

Marijuana Legalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marijuana Legalization - Essay Example The most important reason for anyone to debate on the subject of marijuana legalization is because of its relevance to young people. Advocates of marijuana legalization in Washington, DC have voted on the legalization of marijuana and approved the move by an overwhelming majority. Kleiman mentions in his article that the district officials of the states are now looking to create a market for buying and selling of marijuana which was previously prohibited from selling under the ‘grow and give’ framework. In the article, Kleiman points out his argument against the creation of a profit motivated market for marijuana. It is true that commercialization of marijuana is disadvantageous. For one, it can cause many problems for states where marijuana is still illegal. Legalization of marijuana in Washington alone is likely to have its repercussions on other states where the drug is prohibited, a risk which also pointed out by Kleiman. Creation of an official market for marijuana will spark its trafficking to other states through underground channels. The most obvious impact is the rise in inter-state travelling in Washington for recreational usage of the drug. As such, there is a great likelihood that marijuana availability in Washington will result in easy acquisition and trafficking of the drug to other states. In his article, Mark Kleiman has argued against the commercialization of marijuana. Marijuana legalization comes at great social costs especially for the young user base of the illicit drug.

Social constructivism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Social constructivism - Essay Example The new theoretical approach of social constructivism was introduced to the study of International Relations at an appropriate time in history. Theorists in International Relations began to gradually include the implications of a social constructivist approach to the study of the discipline, nearly two decades ago. International theory had been developed during the time of the Cold War. The persistent tension between the United States and the Soviet Union had an immense influence on the discipline of International Relations. It underscored conflict as a defining feature of the discipline, and the improbability of the emergence of a peaceful world. The view of international relations as a function involving anarchy and social disorder continued to be maintained by both realists and neoliberal institutionalists â€Å"who provided the dominant theoretical approaches to the study of international relations†. The fall of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War could not be expl ained by International Relations theorists who conceptualized anarchy as an essential part of the discipline and failed to predict these developments. Against this background, constructivism had a revolutionary impact on the formulation of International Relations. â€Å"Social constructivism provides a new way of looking at and conceptualizing the world that, potentially has significant consequences for all ongoing theories in international relations†. Social constructivism is based on a more dynamic, less static approach.

HSA 535 WK 8 D1 & DB2 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

HSA 535 WK 8 D1 & DB2 - Coursework Example For example, the imaging tests include the use of Mammograms and computed tomography scans. Understanding Laboratory tests requires that there is a fact sheet used to keep records for the role of screening and diagnostic laboratory tests. The fact sheets usually contain a list of the common tests done in cancer medicine hence could be used as a reference. Pap and HPV testing are some of the laboratory tests in cancer medicine that patients are likely to get through during their diagnosis and treatment procedures. A fact sheet is used which includes information about cervical cancer screening guidelines which can be used on the patients. There is also the Prostate-Specific Antigen Test that is used as a way of diagnosis of prostate cancer in patients. The fact sheet presents guidelines of the procedure together with the benefits and limitations of the test. These tests are efficient, however, only in the first world countries. Third world countries lack the necessary resources and financing to run cancer screening centers effectively and of a large magnitude. However, the US is a developed country with a well-established means of ensuring affordable health care to all its citizens hence has effective procedures. Prostate cancer is usually more prevalent in patients who are older hence it is advisable that older people go for regular screening. This could reduce the extra costs that would be incurred during treatment because once detected early, there are higher chances of treatment. There are a number of ways to address and communicate to the public about the disease. This can be done by engaging the mass in social media using posts that can target their interests. In this contemporary world, the social media has been very active as a tool of communication. Youths can share ideas and criticize hence gaining more knowledge about the disease. The other way would be through free

Problems of Defining and Measurement of Development Essay

Problems of Defining and Measurement of Development - Essay Example There are many geographers that measure the development in the terms of countries Human Development Index. On the other hand in various countries economists link the development with the developed or either with developing countries economies and use the GNP (Gross National Product) and GDP (Gross Domestic Product) for measuring it (Pieterse 2009). As the definition of development, it is important that technological justice and improvements are even interrelated features that require being considered. The study has been conducted for defining the problems that occur while defining the development taking place in the economy and the various measures adopted by the economists for measuring it on the specific index. The study will also include different theories that are applied in the development for defining it. The study will also include examples drawn from various countries for defining the development, as most of the countries use the income level for defining the development taking place in different countries (Jaffee 1998). The term development has been used from the past few decades and there are several definitions which are associated with the training, seminars, workshops, certificate programs, college and degree programs and also the books and other reading materials. The term development when initially discussed was treated as the synonym of the term improvement of individuals of a lot of individuals in society. With the passage of time, with the emergence of new initiatives and innovations, there is an addition to the confusion in the definition of the term development. There is confusion in the terminology that is used for defining the term â€Å"development†. From the international perspective, it can be said to be as an integral part of a large and broader process of the social and community change (Love and Guthrie 2011). The goal of this change is to bring in the efficiency and improvement in the activities related to economic and social justice.  

Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

Research Paper Example The way in which this peril was met builds the basis of current admiration for the struggle of Black vote—a struggle fuelled by the sacrifice of those who were murdered, beaten, or injured by a white supremacist attitude. This research paper discusses the history of the Black vote in the United States. The Black Struggle for Voting Rights Recognition that Blacks already voted prior to the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was presented in the famed Dred Scott resolution in 1856 wherein a Supreme Court dominated by Democrats stated that Blacks â€Å"had no rights which a white man was bound to respect; and that the Negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for his benefit† (Jaffa 286). Justice Benjamin Curtis, the only non-democrat, opposed that statement and showed a long documentary history to prove that numerous Blacks in the U.S. had frequently practiced citizens’ rights—that numerous Blacks during the American Revolution â€Å"possessed the franch ise of [voters] on equal terms with other citizens† (Muhammad 17). States that guaranteed and safeguarded the rights of Blacks to vote in the 18th century were New York, New Hampshire, Maryland, and Delaware. Pennsylvania and Massachusetts also guaranteed the Blacks’ right to vote in their constitution. Indeed, a Black Republican, Robert Brown Elliott, asked in 1874 (Middleton 109): â€Å"When did Massachusetts sully her proud record by placing on her statute-book any law which admitted to the ballot the white man and shut out the black man? She has never done it; she will not do it.† Because of such legislations, early American cities had a larger number of Black voters than Whites; and when the suggested American Constitution was presented to the people in the latter part of the 18th century, it was approved by both White and Black voters in several states (Barton para 4). However, this is not to suggest that every Black was granted voting rights; free Blacks, excluding those in South Carolina, were allowed to vote but slaves were prohibited to exercise voting rights. But in several states this was insignificant, because many individuals and groups persevered to abolish slavery during the American Revolution (Fauntroy 62). Even though Britain had disallowed the eradication of slavery in the colonies prior to the Revolution, as autonomous states they had the power to abolish slavery, just like what happened in New York, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. In addition, Blacks in numerous states were not only granted voting rights but also rights to participate in public affairs (Barton para 5). In Alabama, 99 Blacks were voted for the State Legislature, 127 Blacks for Louisiana’s Legislature, 50 Blacks for South Carolina’s, and 42 for Texas Legislature (Barton para 15). These Republican governing bodies acted immediately to guarantee and safeguard the right to vote for Blacks, ba n segregation, and grant Blacks access to juries, law enforcement, public transportation, and so on. At a time when majority of southern Democrats had not yet approved the vow of fidelity to the U.S. and thus were not allowed to vote, they still tried to threaten and get in the way of the endorsement of Blacks’

Terms of reference Essay Example for Free

Terms of reference Essay This report is based on comparing six different documents. I have to compare 2 documents from 3 different companies. I chose to compare 3 prospectuses and 3 application forms. All information was collected last year when I was looking for a collage to go to. I will be looking at different parts of the documents from how many pages they have and how they appeal to people looking for a collage to go to. I will also be writing about how well the documents do there job. I found by looking at each prospectus there were similar elements between them and also that they were similar to one another. I saw all that all prospectuses have had information on courses. I noticed that all the application forms were laid out the same they all used boxes all application forms use boxes because it makes the forms look better. The first document I collected was a prospectus from Spelthorne collage I got the prospectus by ordering it on-line from www. spelthorne. ac. uk but it can also be picked up from Spelthorne collage in Ashford. The Spelthorne prospectus is around 2/3rds the size of an A4 piece of paper and has boarder on the front page it also has writing going on top of many pictures the writing is going diagonal. On the cover it also give the viewer the effect of looking at a website it has a list of courses and mouse over hand clicking on a subject, because the prospectus is only 2/3rds of an A4 sheet of paper when opened it feels extra long. A special type of paper is used on the cover. This prospectus has to be one of the smallest I have seen. The layout of nearly every page in this prospectus is the same it has a few pictures at the top of the page of at the bottom some pictures and text wrapped around them every page has a heading at the top (e. g. courses then it writes what course it is) Also on every page there is a boarder on the left the boarder is greater then any were else on the page this is because information is written here like a contents. Every other page has the Spelthorne website at the bottom in the boarder and also it has a mouse over saying Adult education courses see page 28 for full listing. Every page also has a purple line going through the top of it and a full circle going through the large boarder on the left hand side. The layout of the courses is very good they have a big heading in the boarder with a content page. By looking at this prospectus you can see that the main colour of it is purple but the front cover also has many different font colours these vary from white, orange, blue, red and yellow. The main colour that caught my eye when looking at this prospectus was the orange this was because it was brighter than any other colour on the page and stood out the most another colour I thought looked very well on the front cover was the whitish purple that was in the page boarder. When opening the prospectus you can still see that the dominate colour is purple but on the first few pages there are many other colours to such as light blue used as a back ground with black writing on top of it. A lot of white is also used as background colour. After the first few pages the purple boarder appears around the whole page other colours are also used but are not as noticed as purple. They make heading of courses stand out by making them a blue. On some pages a blue back ground is used to make information stick out more. Overall I think the colour scheme is very straight forward but I think they over did it with the purple.

Impact of Mental Health Act 2007 on Children

Impact of Mental Health Act 2007 on Children The amendments introduced into the Mental Health Act 1983 by the Mental Health Act 2007, amending s.131 of the 1983 Act, in relation to the informal admission of 16 and 17 year olds is, at last, a step in the right direction and goes some way to addressing an unsatisfactory failure to recognise the right to autonomy of a competent child. Critically analyse this statement with regard to the law relating to the medical treatment of children. Introduction In order to analyse whether the Mental Health Act 2007 has given new rights to children in respect of autonomy it is necessary to examine the way in which children were treated before the introduction of the Act. In doing this it will be necessary to examine the various Acts that have been implemented and the content of these with regard to the rights of children. It is hoped to be able to draw a conclusion from the research as to the effectiveness of the 2007 Act in allowing children to be able to make decisions about their own medical treatment. Consent to treatment Consent to medical treatment is founded on the principle of the respect for autonomy, which has been encompassed in Article 5 and Article 8 of the Human Rights Act 1998. Many doctors are of the opinion that there is a legal requirement for consent to medical treatment (Kessel, 1994). Informed consent has become an issue following several cases against doctors on allegations of negligence and battery (Faden and Beauchamp, 1986). Supporters of the Human Rights Act 1998 believe that mature minors should be protected under the right to a private life and should be able to insist on not having their wishes overridden (Hagger, 2003). Patient autonomy has been the impetus behind legislative changes in relation to the issue of consent. Faden and Beauchamp (1986) believed that the aim of the process of consent is to allow the patient the maximum opportunity to reach an autonomous decision. They believed that this could also be achieved by persuasion through convincing the patient of the benefits of the treatment by appealing to their sense of reason. Internationally the Nuremberg Code 1947 and the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki 1964 have attempted to increase patient autonomy, particularly with regard to medical research. The Human Rights Act 1998 has also increased the rights of autonomy which impacts on not only adult patients but also on adolescents who are deemed to be competent to make such decisions (Hewson, 2000). In terms of legislation on the issue of autonomy the Family Law Reform Act 1991 was enacted to give 16 and 17 year old a greater degree of autonomy over their treatment. In essence the notion of the Act was that a person in the stipulated age range would be entitled to decide whether or not to accept the treatment offered. Unfortunately there was a reluctance to give full autonomy to adolescents and so in order to allow a degree of parental control s8(3) of the Act was inserted which stated that ‘nothing in this section shall be construed as making ineffective any consent which would have been effective had the section not been enacted’. This effectively allowed a parent to still give consent on the part of the adolescent if they refused the treatment. The Mental Health Act 1983 did little to assist with autonomy especially when in relation to the autonomy of a child. Under this Act parents or carers of children with mental disorders were given even less autonomy then under the previous legislation. Under the 1983 Act the competence of the patient was even more difficult to establish in cases where the patient was suffering from a mental disorder. It was viewed that such a disorder was likely to lead to the patient being less able to decide whether the treatment would be beneficial to them. The Mental Health Act 1983 Code of Practice regards parental authority for treatment and detention sufficient irrespective if the competence of the child (Department of Health and Welsh Office, 1999). In 1989 the Children Act attempted to provide a child with a degree of autonomy by granting them limited rights to refuse medical treatment. However, the courts were instructed to view the refusal of the child in line with the professional’s perception of the best interests of the child. This effectively meant that a doctor could override the wishes of the child if he were able to display that the treatment would benefit the child. Similar attempts at increasing autonomy were contained within the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1991 which stated that children should have the same dignity and rights of an adult when making a decision concerning their treatment. Article 12 of the convention states that ‘†¦the child who is capable of forming his or her own views has the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child: the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with age and maturity of the child. the child shall in particular be provided with the opportunity to be heard in any surgical or administrative proceedings affecting the child directly; or through a representative body. The Convention was, however, reluctant to allow total autonomy and made it clear that despite the right to autonomy children are dependent on their parents or carers and need protection and guidance. This in essence allows those caring for a child who is refusing treatment to insist on the child receiving the treatment on the grounds that they are incapable of making their own decisions and need the guidance of their parents. In 1999 the Department of Health conducted the Mental Health Act Review in which it recommended the lowering of the age of capacity for decision making to 16 and inserted a presumption that a child is regarded as competent from the age of 10. Distinction between consent and refusal of treatment Whilst accepting that there are occasions when the child should be regarded as competent to give consent the courts have been reluctant to allow a child to refuse to treatment. In order for consent to be given by a minor the court need to be satisfied that the child is competent enough to be able to make such a decision. This was tested in the case of Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority [1986] in which Lord Scarman ruled that the parental right to determine whether their child below the age of 16 will have medical treatment terminates if and when the child achieves a sufficient understanding and intelligence to enable them to understand fully what is proposed . This case led to the formation of the principle of Gillick competence. In assessing the ability of the child to give consent the courts use the above case as a yardstick for determining the competence of the child. Although the case mentioned above would appear to open the floodgates for children to be able to assert their right with regard to consent to treatment those who are suffering from a mental disorder are unlikely to be able to rely on this. This was the case in Re R (A minor) (Wardship: Medical Treatment) [1991] in which a 15 year old who had been admitted to hospital with a suspected psychotic illness and who had refused medication was forced to receive treatment. At the Court of Appeal the judge held that a child who had a fluctuating mental capacity as in the instant case could never be considered to be competent. In the case of Re W (A minor) (Wardship: Medical Treatment) [1992] the court held that a parent’s right to consent was not extinguished by the Family Law Reform Act 1969. In this case a 16 year old girl who was suffering from anorexia nervosa was refusing treatment for her condition. Case law regarding the compulsive treatment is at a variance to the treatment of adults. A competent adult is entitled to refuse medical treatment even if the reason for the refusal is irrational. A competent adult can also refuse treatment without any specific reason for refusing as was demonstrated in Sidaway v Governors of Bethlem Royal Hospital [1985]. There have also been occasions where adults who have been detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 have not been regarded as wholly incompetent. This was held to be the case in Re C (Adult: Refusal of treatment) [1994] in which the patient who was schizophrenic refused to have his foot amputated despite the fact that it was gangrenous and that by not having it removed it was likely that he would die. In this particular case the patient accepted a less invasive treatment which resulted in the foot returning to normal without the need to amputate. It can be concluded from the above that within English law a minor has the right to consent to treatment but is denied the right to refuse treatment. One of the major concerns expressed by doctors with regard to the refusal of treatment is that the essence of medical opinion is that they are required as doctors to act in the best interests of their patient. Allowing the patient to refuse treatment denies the doctors the right to act in the patient’s best interests. Test for competence The British Medical Association alongside the Law Society (1995) published guidelines to assist in determining the competence of a child. Assessments are based on the determining whether the child understands the choices available, the consequences of each of those choices and that they are able to make those choices. The person carrying out the assessment should ensure that the child has not been pressured to make the choice they are making. Most doctors will consider the rationality of the decision made by the child, however they should consider these choices in context of the emotions of the parties, their experience and the social context (Dickenson, 1994; Rushforth, 1999). The maturity of the child has also been a deciding factor in the assessment of competence. Children mature at different rates and maturity can be affected by the role of the parents in the child’s life (Alderson, 1993). Maturity is of particular relevance in relation to mental health issues of the child. Batten (1996) argues that maturity can be difficult to determine as their can be a harsh fluctuation in the maturity level of a child with a mental disorder. Gersch (2002) believes that professionals should be trained in child development so as to understand the thought processes of the child. by understanding the way they think the professionals can determine whether the child is making a decision of their own free will or whether the child has been coerced by those responsible for the care of the child. Alderson (1996) believes that in assessing the competence of the child consideration should be given of the child’s understanding of their condition. Alderson holds that an assessment of the child’s experience of their illness will disclose their level of maturity and understanding of the consequences of the refusal of treatment. Chapman (1988) felt that using the age of the child as a traditional measure of competence was flawed as children mature at different levels. Using age as a measure failed to take into account those suffering with mental disorders, some of whom were unlikely to ever be competent enough to make a decision in their own right. Ethics and consent When dealing with adult patients with mental disorders the emphasis is on allowing the patient to make autonomous decisions. By contrast with children the major deciding factor is the welfare of the child as expressed by those who have parental responsibility for them and the medical staff treating the child. The Mental Health Act 2007 is an attempt to redress this imbalance by accepting that children mature at a much earlier age nowadays and that in the past the parents have made decisions regarding the child’s treatment without proper consideration of the quality of life the child will have (Dickenson, 1994). Given that it is the children who have to live with the decisions that are being made about their treatment the 2007 Act seems to enforce the right of the child to be able to make their own decisions. Mental illness and treatment Much of the above centres on the rights of children in respect of general medical treatment and allows for the decision of a child to be overruled where the situation is regarded as life threatening, as demonstrated in the case mentioned above with a child suffering from anorexia. Shaw (1999) believes that children should be involved as much as possible where refusal of such treatment is only likely to have minor consequences for the child. Rushforth (1999), however, feels that there should be a sliding scale of involvement in the decision making process, with the medical practitioners, parents and children all being actively involved. Rushforth (1999) also believes that even if the admission was formal or compulsory this should not affect the autonomy of the patient in respect of all treatment. It could be argued that overruling the refusal of the child to undergo treatment is tantamount to child abuse, as the child is forced to have treatment against their will. The impact of the Mental Health Act 2007 From 1 January 2008 16 and 17year olds can no longer be admitted to hospital for treatment for a mental disorder based on the consent of a person who has parental responsibility for them. The change in legislation has been into section 43 of the Mental Health Act 2007 and states (4) If the patient does not consent to the making of the arrangements, they may not be made, carried out or determined on the basis of the consent of a person who has parental responsibility for him. By virtue of subsection (3) a person aged 16 or 17 is able to give consent for an informal admission to hospital even if those who have parental responsibility for them refuse to consent. (3) If the patient consents to the making of the arrangements, they may be made, carried out and determined on the basis of that consent even though there are one or more persons who have parental responsibility for him. Given that this section only came into force since January 2008 there is no case law available to prove that the legislation will be fully adhered to. It is unclear from the information available whether exceptions will apply where the refusal of treatment can be overruled. Life threatening conditions In some spheres eating disorders have been regarded as a form of mental illness. Since the change in legislation to the Mental Health Act whereby 16 and 17 year olds can refuse medical treatment it is likely that conditions such as anorexia nervosa will be classified as illnesses rather then mental abnormalities. Should such conditions be classed as mental illnesses this would effectively mean that an adolescent could refuse treatment thereby starving themselves to death. Before the introduction of the 2007 Act patients with eating disorders where compulsorily admitted to hospital for treatment under the Mental Health Act 1983. Compulsory treatment for this condition has been deemed to be compatible with the Human Rights Act 1998 although many have questioned the legitimacy over parental consent being applied where the sufferer is aged between 16 and 18. In the white paper ‘The New Legal Framework’ published in 2000 it was recommended that the amended Mental Health Act should introduce community detention powers, at the same time as altering the detention and representation rights of children (Department of Health, 2000a). It was argued that the definition of mental disorder, as would be amended by the 2007 Act, would become to broad and concerns were expressed that should anorexia be regarded as a mental disorder difficulties might arise in being able to force feed sufferers as doctors have been able to in the past (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2001). This point was raised during the early stages of the Bill. In an attempt to prevent such an anomaly the white paper suggested that the limits of the definition of mental disorder should be clearly set. According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists (2001) the proposed amendments to the definition were sufficient and would not cause any difficulty when dealing with a patient with an eating disorder. In their report they stated that as the main treatment was in making the patient eat it could be argued that this was not medication and therefore the patient would not be able to refuse in reliance on the Act as this specifically deals with the refusal of medication (Szmukler et al, 1995). It was also felt that someone suffering from an eating disorder could be admitted under a formal admission process as there was a severe medical risk to the sufferer. Since s43 deals specifically with informal admissions and the right of the patient to refuse to be informally admitted, classification of the illness as a severe medical risk could be used to for malise the admission which would mean that the patient would not be able to refuse admission relying on the Act. Capacity and the Mental Health Act Changes to the Mental Capacity Act 2005 have been included within the 2007 Act which assists those dealing with patients with eating disorders to be able to detain the person under a formal admission. Section 50 of the 2007 Act deals specifically with the deprivation of liberty and highlights the occasions where a patient can be deprived of their liberty. The amendments have the effect of inserting into the 2005 Act the following 4B Deprivation of liberty necessary for life-sustaining treatment etc (3) The second condition is that the deprivation of liberty— (a) is wholly or partly for the purpose of— (i) giving P life-sustaining treatment, or (ii) doing any vital act, or (b) consists wholly or partly of— (i) giving P life-sustaining treatment, or (ii) doing any vital act. (4) The third condition is that the deprivation of liberty is necessary in order to— (a) give the life-sustaining treatment, or (b) do the vital act. (5) A vital act is any act which the person doing it reasonably believes to be necessary to prevent a serious deterioration in P’s condition.† By including this provision into the 2005 Act doctors can insist on hospitalisation and treatment of a person with an eating disorder on the grounds that the treatment is necessary in order to sustain life. During the discussions leading up to the change in the Mental Health Act the Government expressed concern about the use of compulsory powers following a diagnosis of mental disorder (Department of Health, 2000b). In the New Legal Framework paper it specified that there should be an assessment period of a maximum of 28 days where compulsory treatment could be given. After the expiration of this period a tribunal will be required to authorise a care plan guided by the opinion of an expert. Those responsible for the treatment of patients with anorexia nervosa argued that the patient would be unlikely to have significantly improved within 28 days and would still lack the necessary capacity to make rational decisions as the condition has the effect of impairing the mental capacity of the patient. The paper also suggested that in some instances patients could be treated through compulsory community treatment as opposed to enforced admission. This was included under section 32 of the 2007 Act. A safety net has been inserted into the amendments such that a community patient can be recalled to hospital if they need medical treatment for their condition. 17E Power to recall to hospital (1) The responsible clinician may recall a community patient to hospital if in his opinion— (a) the patient requires medical treatment in hospital for his mental disorder; and (b) there would be a risk of harm to the health or safety of the patient or to other persons if the patient were not recalled to hospital for that purpose. In cases of eating disorders community treatment might be difficult to monitor or control although it was agreed by those dealing with these disorders that treatment of patient’s at home could be beneficial in preventing relapse. In Somerset and Wessex the Somerset and Wessex Eating Disorders Association has adopted the National Plan of meal support. The role of the meal supporter is to help the person with the disorder to overcome their anxiety about being scrutinised over the foods they are eating. Meal supporters in this area have found that the best way to assist a sufferer is for the meal supporter to eat exactly the same as the sufferer that way the sufferer does not feel that they are being patronised and singled out. Health professionals have agreed that the provision of meal supporters nationally will enable people suffering from eating disorders to be treated in the community rather than having to be hospitalised. Where the condition of the person suffering from an eating disorder is so severe and they are refusing treatment medical practitioners are not limited by the 2007 Act with regard to the compulsory admission of patient’s. Fears that a 16 or 17 year old patient with anorexia nervosa could refuse treatment on reliance of the 2007 Act are unlikely to come to fruition. The treatment of adult patients suffering from this condition since the introduction of the 2007 Act is still carried out through compulsory admission under the Mental Health Act 1983. The recent case of R. (on the application of M) v Homerton University Hospital [2008] EWCA Civ 197 involved a woman in her forties who was suffering from anorexia nervosa. The patient was admitted to hospital under s2 of the 1983 Act and following treatment her condition improved and she was gaining weight. The mother of the applicant indicated to the hospital that she intended to apply to the court for an order of discharge. Realising that this would result in the release of the patient the hospital applied to have the woman detained under s3 of the 1983 Act as well as applying to have the mother displaced as the nearest relative under s29 of the Act. The patient appealed on the grounds that compulsory admission was unlawful. The court disallowed the appeal and concurrent detention was ordered. Using the decision above it would be impossible for a 16 or 17 year old to argue that they had been treated any differently to an adult in the same situation, therefore the courts would be li kely to order compulsory detention. Conclusion From the above it can be concluded that the amendments made by the Mental Health Act 2007 are likely to have a positive impact. The insertion of the right of 16 and 17 year olds to refuse informal admission to hospital for treatment gives them a degree of autonomy that has previously been denied to them. Within the amendment adolescents in this age range are also entitled to insist on informal admission in situations where their parents or carers have refused to allow them to be admitted. The concerns expressed over the treatment of such people with eating disorders has been addressed by allowing doctors to apply for formal admission where the condition of the person has deteriorated to the extent that the condition has become life threatening. The use of compulsory community treatment orders is also likely to be beneficial in dealing with patients with eating disorders as statistics have shown that there is a higher mortality rate amongst those treated compulsorily in hospital then those that have been treated at home or in the community. Bibliography Alderson P, Montgomery J. What about me? Health Service Journal April 1996:22–4. Alderson, P. (1993) Childrens Consent to Surgery. Buckingham: Open University Press. Batten, D. A. (1996) Informed consent by children and adolescents to psychiatric treatment. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 623-632 British Medical Association the Law Society (1995) Assessment of Mental Capacity. London: BMA. Chapman M. Constructive evolution: origins and development of Piaget’s thought. Cambridge University Press, 1988 Department of Health Welsh Office (1999) Mental Health Act 1983 Code of Practice. London: Stationery Office. Department of Health (2000a) Reforming the Mental Health Act White Paper Part 1 ‘The new legal framework’ and Part 2 ‘High risk patients’. London: Department of Health. Department of Health (2000b) Reforming the Mental Health Act White Paper Summary. London: Department of Health. Dickenson, D. (1994) Childrens informed consent to treatment: is the law an ass? Journal of Medical Ethics, 20, 205-206 Faden, R. R. Beauchamp, T. L. (1986) A History and Theory of Informed Consent. Oxford: Oxford University Press Gersch I. Resolving disagreement in special educational needs: a practical guide to conciliation and mediation. Routledge/Falmer, 2002. Hagger L. Some implications of the Human Rights Act 1998 for the medical treatment of children. Medical Law International 2003;6(1):25–51 Hewson, B. (2000) Why the human rights act matters to doctors. BMJ, 30, 780-781. Honig, P, Consent in relation to the treatment of eating disorders, Psychiatric Bulletin (2000) 24: 409-411. doi: 10.1192/pb.24.11.409 Kessel, A. S. (1994) On failing to understand informed consent. British Journal of Hospital Medicine, 52, 235-239 Law Commission (1995) Mental Incapacity (Law Commission Report 231). London: Law Commission (http://www.lawcom.gov.uk/library/lc231/contents.htm). Parekh, S.A, Child consent and the law: an insight and discussion into the law relating to consent and competence, Child: Care, Health and Development, Volume 33,Number 1, January 2007 Blackwell Publishing Potter, R, Child psychiatry, mental disorder and the law: is a more specific statutory framework necessary?, The British Journal of Psychiatry (2004) 184: 1-2 2004 The Royal College of Psychiatrists Royal College of Psychiatrists (2001) White Paper on the Reform of the Mental Health Act 1983. Letter from the Chair of the Colleges Public Policy Committee. 13 June 2001. Royal College of Psychiatrists Rushforth, H. (1999) Communicating with hospitalised children: review and application of research pertaining to childrens understanding of health and illness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 683-691 Shaw, M. (1999) Treatment Decisions in Young People: The Legal Framework. London: FOCUS, The Royal College of Psychiatrists Research Unit. Szmukler, G, Dare, C. Treasure, J. (1995) Handbook of Eating Disorders. London: Wiley and Sons. Webster, P, ‘Reforming the Mental Health Act’: implications of the Governments white paper for the management of patients with eating disorders, Psychiatric Bulletin (2003) 27: 364-366. http://www.swedauk.org/leaflets/mealsupport.htm